The Highest Cost Per Click Keywords To Focus On For Lead Generation Get Your Website Now Google makes 97% of their $33.3 billion revenue from their pay per click advertising. You can adopt Google’s revenue model and send leads to your own advertisers using Income Activator’s pay per click program, set your own rates, tracks the clicks, and creates the invoices. Google is telling you which advertisers they make the most money from. All of these advertisers that are advertising with Google have significant issues. Top 20 Highest Cost Keywords 1. Insurance 2. Loans 3. Mortgage 4. Attorney 5. Credit 6. Lawyer 7. Donate 8. Degree 9. Hosting 10. Claim 11. Conference Call 12. Trading 13. Software 14. Recovery 15. Transfer 16. Gas/Electricity 17. Glasses 18. Rehab 19. Treatment 20. Student Loans How To Find High Paying Keywords You can use Google's Keyword Planner to see the average amount that advertisers are paying for each keyword. The Keyword Planner also shows you how many searches are performed each month for each keyword. You can also use the Google Keyword Planner for keyword research. How To Find Advertisers Paying For These Keywords You can find advertisers by simply doing a Google search for the keywords listed below and seeing who appears on the top and to the right of the search results. These companies are paying Google up to $50.00 per click.  It is easy to approach these advertisers if you have Google AdSense running on your website, these advertisers are already on your website, call them up and tell them you can dedicate a whole page to them and put links to their website that track the clicks. Step it up a notch and capture the visitor’s name and email address and what they are looking for, and send that information to your advertiser. Why Do They Want To Advertise With Me? These advertisers have strict rules and restrictions when advertising with Google, here are 5 reasons why an advertiser would want to  advertise with you over Google. 1. The advertiser is limited to a very small ad tag line. Few characters to promote their product before someone clicks on it. 2. The advertiser is listed beside his competition in a group of ads. 3. Google doesn't screen miscellaneous clicks such as students doing research projects. 4. The advertiser has no negotiation power over Google if they feel the clicks aren't justified. 5. The advertiser can't track who came their website, they don’t get a name, email address, or telephone number to market back to the visitor. To start your own pay per click program, sign up for Income Activator and use and see which of the keywords below you can take advantage of. You can also use Income Activator to create referral forms that collects information your advertiser could actually use. If a click is worth $5.00, a visitor lead is worth at least double that! Infographic - Top 20 Highest Cost Per Click Keywords

Referral Revenue VS Sales Revenue Get Your Website Now First Name   Email Address It is easier to make money online when you're not selling a thing. In fact, this can be done for any topic or industry. You can take from your experience, knowledge or passion and create a lucrative Internet business with everything you have right now! There are billions of dollars flowing through the Internet every day from people buying from companies selling stuff. You can tap into this money by injecting your website into the buying process. Companies that sell online realize the power of recommendations, and they are willing to pay for it. There's no better sales force out there than one person recommending to another person where to go. Nielsen Study A Nielsen study measured the level of trust people have in certain forms of online advertising. Text and banner ads came in last. Trust jumped when consumer's posted their opinions online. But trust from recommendations by people hit a high of 90%! You have the power of providing a company with the most powerful sales lead ever… your personal recommendation. Here's how it works. Let's say I was joining Gordon Ramsay, a well renowned chef, at a restaurant in New York that neither of us had been to before. When deciding what to order I would ask the waiter for their recommendation as opposed to asking Gordon Ramsay. Even though Gordon knows much more about food, it's the waiter's recommendation that's much more valuable to me because he knows the menu and what people like. That waiter also has a vested interest as he has to deal with me if his suggestion sucked, as his tip would too. In fact, I would value the waiter's suggestion above the restaurant owner's suggestion, as the restaurant owner knows what needs to be sold, fast, before it spoils! The point here is that your experience can make you a trusted authority above the perceived experts. Trusted Authorities Everyone looks to trusted authorities. You can even become an authority from your own experience, I began being paid for ‘Telling People Where To Go' in the 80s when I owned a travel agency. People would do their travel research, but always asked for a recommendation before they bought their ticket. Even when the recommended destination would cost them more money, they'd pay it. Companies pay for recommendations, hence the popularity of consultants whose job it is to make recommendations. In the 90s when I became involved in the world of insurance, I discovered that insurance companies charged vastly different rates for the exact same policy. You should check it out yourself by going to InsuranceHotline.com. Knowing which insurance company had the best rate for my car and driving record saved me a pile of money when buying my policy. I knew this would save other drivers lots of money too. So I began a rate comparison guide and every time I referred a driver to an insurance company that had the lowest rate for them, I was paid a referral fee. Referrals Work Because There's No Risk Referrals work because it doesn't cost the consumer anything to check it out and there's usually an upside for doing it. Why shouldn't they follow your recommendation? There's no risk, there's no cost, and they don't have to actually spend any money. In my referral program the visitor had the potential of saving $100's or even $1,000's of dollars off their insurance rate. For the five minutes it took them to check it out, the average driver saved around $750. Selling Online Is Very Competitive To sell something to someone online, they have to land on your website at the buying stage. Your potential customer will view other websites selling what you are and compare everything.If they land on your website, they have to be comfortable with buying from you. Many websites come across as 'faceless' identities. If your visitor doesn't know who you are, they probably won't buy from you. You're also competing with large company websites with huge advertising budgets, who are buying lea

Getting Started With Google AdSense Ads & Banners How To Make Money Online 1. Control Your Website 2. Add Revenue Streams 3. Get Traffic & Convert Get Your Website Now First Name   Email Address Share This Article Share this good advice with your friends. Share on facebookShare on twitterShare on emailShare on printMore Sharing Services Where To Register For Pay Per Click Ads If you don’t have a product or service to sell, you can provide information on a topic you're interested in, put pay per click ads on your website and be paid by companies like Google AdSense, when an ad is clicked. There are several pay per click advertising companies you can register with for free. To find companies offering PPC Ads search for 'Pay Per Click Registration'. Here are a few of companies to get you started: 1. Yahoo.com(Bing) Registration Click here. 2. Sitescout.com Registration Click here. 3. Chikita.com Registration Click here.  4. AdMedia.com Registration Click here. To register, click on the top bar entitled GET STARTED, then from the dropdown menu click on PUBLISHERS. Then click on the GET STARTED green arrow, and complete the form. 5. Google AdSense Registration Click here. How Pay Per Click Ads Work View an example of Google Ads on a website page. A 'click' can be worth anywhere from a few cents to several dollars. Some people surpass $20,000 a month from Click Revenue based on a 'Content Only' website with Google AdSense. Although, to make that kind of money requires thousands of visitors to your website on a regular basis. Make Money Like Google Makes Money To have Google Ads run on your website, all you do is sign up for Google AdSense program, which is free and easy to do.  Make $100 A Day See what's required to make $100 per day on Google AdSense. By registering for AdSense, you're giving Google permission to display their clients' ads on your website pages. You can choose which pages you want to run Google's ads on. For displaying ads with AdSense for Content, website owners receive 68% of the amount Google collects from advertisers. For AdSense ads on Google Custom Search, website owners receive 51% of the amount collected from advertisers. Learn more about Google Custom Search. This revenue stream is great for getting started right away. You don't have to talk to anyone and can set it up online 24/7. Authority Websites Here's an audio interview that talks about how you can become an authority or expert in your area of interest. The key to making money from Authority Websites is to know what people are searching for online. It's far better to have 200,000 people a month searching online for your topic, than only 100 people a year searching. In your Keyword Research section, it shows you how to pick a topic people are search for online and how to find advertisers that are paying the highest dollar value per click. You'll make more money by selecting a 'search term' people are searching for and find where there's an 'information need' in the market. Make sure you do this research before creating your Authority website. Search Engines, such as Google, Yahoo and Bing  love authority websites with good content and will display them for online searches ahead of websites that have little content or that are just trying to sell products. If you can write, assemble pictures or videos, you can make money through Google AdSense from a content based website. Pictures & Videos Are Great To Use For Website Content You can even use pictures and videos you find online as content! Pictures can be used as content for your Pay Per Click Revenue Model. View an example of Google Ads. Videos can be used as Content for your Pay Per Click Revenue Model. View an example of Google Ads. Google AdSense Tips If you want to use AdSense to monetize your website or blog, there are a couple tips you should keep in mind. This video was made in 2009, but the basic principles still apply. 1. Make sure you have some decent content on your site before you apply. If you are using a blog, thenaim at 7-10 posts before you apply.Just ends up being quicker, rather than having your site denied. 2. If you do get denied, adjust your site accordingly and reapply with another Google account. 3. Once you're approved for one site you can use AdSense on any site you also own. 4. Learn the terms of service and don’t break any of the rules.You will be caught and you will be shut down. 5. Never click your own ads, or get friends or family too. They will know and you will be shut down. 6. Feel free to use non-contextual ads alongside AdSense.You can use both affiliate offers and AdSense with no problem. 7. You can have 3 ad sections per page. 8. Make sure your ads fit on your site.Don’t have ads that stick out of the sidebar and appear cut off. 9. Blend your links into the site. Choose your own custom colors for ads.Match them with your website color scheme. 10. Add lots of content to your site. The more content that people can find and share, which leads to ad views and clicks. 11. Don’t add images with arrows etc… pointing at your ads. If you encourage clicks, you will be shut down. 12. Adding AdSense Search to your site is a good way to increase your ad revenue. 13. Don’t have any illegal stuff on your website like porn, illegal downloads, drugs, etc. You will be shut down. Google only pays you a percentage of each click. Advantages Of Google AdSense Google's Pay Per Clickrevenue stream is great for getting started today. Even if you're a one finger typist, having a revenue producing website using the Google AdSense program is easy to do. You don't . . . 1. Need a programmer. 2. Need to get your own advertisers. 3. Have to talk to anyone, get approval or even leave your home. 4. Google AdSense is free and easy to sign up to. Google pays you a percentage of what they get paid per click from the advertiser and when your account reaches$100,you can instruct Google to either send you a check or to do a direct deposit into your bank account. You can create as many website pages of content as you wish. The more pages you have with Google ads on them, the more money you have the potential to make. Disadvantages Of Google AdSense Google decides which ads to place on your website. Ads for dating websites or mail order brides could appear on your website. Google's search personalization changes the ads based on people's searches, ads for skiing could appear on your cooking website if the person had searched for skis earlier. You can't recommend the companies advertising to your visitors. Be Careful Don't fall into the temptation of clicking on your Google Ads to make you money. When you register, you agree not to click on your own ads and after they track your clicks, you will be shut down. 7 Reasons Why You Should Launch Your Own PPC Program Once you get comfortable with getting paid by Google for running their ads on your website, you may want to switch to your Income Activator's Pay Per Click Ad program where you get to keep 100% of your revenue. Learn more about Income Activator's Pay Per Click program. If you're already using ads from search engines on your website, it doesn't mean you have to stop. You can simply begin to incorporate your own advertisers into your website too. This means that if your search engine ads stop pulling in the kind of revenue you expect, or if your search engine ad program stops entirely, you have your own advertisers still generating revenue for you. 1. Keep 100% Revenue With Google AdSense, you make about 68% of the click revenue, with Income Activator's Pay Per Click program, you keep 100%. There is no middle man. 2. Set Your Own Rate You can set your own pay per click rate instead of having to rely on Google's rates that you have no control over. 3. Personalization Google personalizes the ads the person sees on your website based on the visitor's previous search history. This often doesn't match what your website is about which reduces the number of clicks. For example, if your website is about food and the person loves skiing, skiing ads may appear on your food website however the person would be more inclined to click on a food related ad when looking at recipe ideas than what new ski boots to buy. You have control over your ads and advertisers and match your advertisers to the type of visitors you're attracting. This increases the amount of clicks and money you make. 4. Can't Encourage Clicks Search engines have to protect themselves against fraudulent clicks because their advertisers would stop advertising if the leads were fake. Therefore, they would remove you from their click program if you encourage your visitors to click on their ads. With your Income Activator program you encourage clicks with your recommendations to your advertisers because you know who they are and what kind of visitors they are looking for. This increases the amount of clicks and money you make. 5. No Control You are the mercy of the search engines allowing you to run their ads on your website. If they take you off for whatever reason, you're doomed. You are not told how much money you make per click or which advertiser ads your visitors are clicking on. This being the case, it's impossible to do any real revenue projections. By running your own advertising programs you know which ads are being clicked on, how many leads you're sending to your advertisers and you set your own advertising rates. You can divide out your referral programs with several advertisers. If one advertiser leaves, you're fine. 6. The Ads Don't Have To Look Like Ads Search engine ads and banners are often ignored by visitors because they look like ads. With your own program you can customize the look and feel of your links and put them where you want. They can even appear as simple text links in the middle of an article. This increases the amount of clicks and money you make. 7. Keep 100% Of The Revenue With search engines ads you get don't know which percentage they are giving you, an average commission rate is between 5-10%. With Income Activator referrals you receive 100% of your referral rate which you set yourself. Leads generally pay more than Pay Per Click ads which means you can ask for a higher referral rate than a click is worth.

How To Make Money Through Affiliate Products

Get Your Website Now

First Name Email Address

There are 1000's of manufacturers in all industries who have products or services available for you to sell and make a commission on.

You don't need a products to sell, you don't have to take payments, and you don't have to ship anything. Plus, you don't have to deal with customers, returns, or refunds.

An affiliate company pays you when a visitor from your website clicks on a link and is sent to the affiliate's company website and makes a purchase.

How Much Commission Can You Earn  

Commissions vary between affiliate companies. Information and downloadable software products can average commission rates of 50% to 75%, where products or services usually bring in commission rates between 5% and 10%.

Example Of An Affiliate Product

This is an example of what an affiliate product would look like in your online store. Click the BUY NOW button, and you can see how the store works. When a visitor clicks on the 'Buy Now' button they're directed to the affiliate company's website to continue with their purchase.

How To Start Selling Affiliate Products

You can search on Google for the type of products or services you want to sell. When you find the company selling it, you can call them directly. Many of these companies also have their own affiliate program allowing you to sign up on their website to promote the sale of their products or services.

Your affiliate company will also give you a log in section on their website where you can keep track of your sales, and payments. 

Consolidators

There are also companies that have consolidated 1,000’s of affiliate partners under one umbrella where you can go and select the kind of products you want to promote.

Three popular consolidators are; ClickBank, LinkShare and Commission Junction. 

ClickBank sells information and downloadable software products with commissions ranging between 40% and 75%. You can register for free on ClickBank and be accepted immediately to sell any of the products from the companies they represent.

Here’s an example of a software product, offered by a company under the ClickBank umbrella, which monitors a child's activities on the web. It also protects against online predators. It’s called PC Tattletale Software. The Tattletale software costs $70.88 and the website owner receives 51% in commission.

LinkShare & Commission Junction's product lines range in commission from 5% to 10%.  

One example of LinkShare's companies where you need to be approved for selling their unique product lines is SkyMall.com. You may have seen their product lines in magazines on various airlines. Approvals are easier to get when you create an online store already created.

Banners & Tracking Links

Affiliates provide you with banners or tracking links you can easily copy into your website. You simply copy and paste into your store which tracks your visitor purchases.

When a visitor clicks on one, and is directed to your affiliate, it tracks the sale. Links can usually track returning visitors for weeks or months and you can still receive a commission if they return to make a purchase. You should ask your affiliate partner the time frame that they attribute the sale to you for returning visitors.

You can feature affiliate products and services that are complimentary to what your website is about, and feature them in various website pages alongside of your primary revenue stream.

You can sell an unlimited number of products on your website.

Income Activator's Affiliate Program

You are automatically registered as an IA affiliate when you have an Income Activator website. This means when any visitors from your website go to get their own Income Activator website you’re paid $30.

To show this page on your website simply unhide your Income Activator page. Learn more about making money through Income Activator's Affiliate Program.

How To Earn $100 Per Day With Google AdSense, And How Much Traffic You Need Earning $100, $200 or even $300 per day with Google AdSense is not an impossible job. Many bloggers and website owners are doing it, and you are not an exception. The only thing you need is better planning and execution, hard work, determination and passion for blogging about your topic or niche. Before diving into the exact process, let’s know some terminology for better understanding of Google AdSense and how you can generate more revenue by selling your ad inventories on your blog. What Is AdSense: It’s a monetization program by Google for online content from websites, mobile sites, and site search results with relevant and engaging ads. CTR : Your ad Click-through Rate is the number of ad clicks divided by the number of individual ad impressions. Suppose you are showing 3 AdSense ads on every page, your 1 page view is equal to 3 ad impressions. CTR = Clicks / Ad Impressions X 100 Suppose, you get 5 clicks out of 500 ad impressions, your CTR would be 1% (5/500X100). CPC : Cost-Per-Click is the revenue you earn each time a visitor clicks on your ad. CPC is usually determined by the advertisers. In some competitive niches like finance, marketing, online products etc. advertisers may be willing to pay more per click than others. CPM: CPM means “Cost Per 1000 Impressions.” Sometimes advertisers opt for CPM ads instead of CPC and set their price for 1000 ad impressions. And they pay each time their ads appear on any website. Let’s Make $100 Everyday With Google AdSense, Right? For the convenience of calculation we assume that – You serve your AdSense ads on your blog or website, irrespective of showing your ads on your mobile site and added the site search results with AdSense. Your CTR is 1% and your average CPC is $0.25. It’s quite achievable and lots of bloggers usually get it. We also assume that Page View = Ad Impression for easy calculation. You can manipulate the parameters on your own for desired results. To make $100 everyday you need 40,000 Page Views/day Or, 400 Clicks a day @ 1% CTR and $0.25 CPC. For 40,000 Page Views you have to produce 500 awesome articles or blog posts which attract at least 80 or more page views/article everyday. Apart from CPC, you will also earn from your CPM ad impressions. Irrespective of any niche, the average CPM earning is $1 to $1.5 per 1,000 impressions. You can make $40 to $60 per day easily from 40,000 page views. You can also sell your Ad space directly or via BuySellAds.com and generate $6,000 Per Month on an average from 40,000 page views. Check out how webmasters and bloggers are making $6,000 to $8,000 Per Month from BuySellAds with forty thousand page views per day. So your daily earning will be $200 (6000/30=200). A niche blog with high quality articles converts very well with affiliate marketing. You can easily earn $40 to $80/day from affiliate selling with correct implementation and execution. Now your total earning per day is $100 + $40 + $200 +$40 = $380 from CPC, CPM, Direct Ad Sell, Affiliate Marketing for 40,000 page views per day. I’ve taken the lowest possible earnings from all the 4 sources. $380 per day means $11,400 per month (380X30= 11,400) Or, $136,800 per year(11,400X12=136,800). Isn’t it a whooping amount to lead a lavish life? Which is well above your desired earning of $100 per day from Google AdSense, right? 1000s of people are making money by writing articles, and you can also do it. The only thing I want to say is “Be Focused!” P.S. The above results can be possible if you produce at least 200 to 250 great articles or blog posts per year for 2 years. So how much traffic you actually need to make $100 per day from Google AdSense – It’s way less than 40,000 Page Views Per Day!

 

programming language generations

Part of the Programming glossary:

In the computer industry, these abbreviations are widely used to represent major steps or "generations" in the evolution of programming languages.
1GL or first-generation language was (and still is) machine language or the level of instructions and data that the processor is actually given to work on (which in conventional computers is a string of 0s and 1s).
2GL or second-generation language is assembler (sometimes called "assembly") language. A typical 2GL instruction looks like this:

                 ADD    12,8

An assembler converts the assembler language statements into machine language.
3GL or third-generation language is a "high-level" programming language, such as PL/I, C, or Java. Java language statements look like this:

public boolean handleEvent (Event evt) {
            switch (evt.id)  {
                 case Event.ACTION_EVENT:  {
                         if ("Try me" .equald(evt.arg)) {

A compiler converts the statements of a specific high-level programming language into machine language. (In the case of Java, the output is called bytecode, which is converted into appropriate machine language by a Java virtual machine that runs as part of an operating system platform.) A 3GL language requires a considerable amount of programming knowledge.

4GL or fourth-generation language is designed to be closer to natural language than a 3GL language. Languages for accessing databases are often described as 4GLs. A 4GL language statement might look like this:

     EXTRACT ALL CUSTOMERS WHERE "PREVIOUS PURCHASES" TOTAL MORE THAN $1000

5GL or fifth-generation language is programming that uses a visual or graphical development interface to create source language that is usually compiled with a 3GL or 4GL language compiler. Microsoft, Borland, IBM, and other companies make 5GL visual programming products for developing applications in Java, for example. Visual programming allows you to easily envision object-oriented programming class hierarchies and drag icons to assemble program components.

Classifying Programming Languages

What are some of the different ways to categorize programming languages?

Overview

Different languages have different purposes, so it makes sense to talk about different kinds, or types, of languages. Some types are:

• Machine languages — interpreted directly in hardware
• Assembly languages — thin wrappers over a corresponding machine language
• High-level languages — anything machine-independent
• System languages — designed for writing low-level tasks, like memory and process management
• Scripting languages — generally extremely high-level and powerful
• Domain-specific languages — used in highly special-purpose areas only
• Visual languages — non-text based
• Esoteric languages — not really intended to be used

These types are not mutually exclusive: Perl is both high-level and scripting; C is considered both high-level and system.
Other types people have identified: Toy, Educational, Very High-Level, Compiled, Interpreted, Free-Form, Curly Brace, Applicative, Von Neumann, Expression-Oriented, Persistent, Concurrent, Glue, Intermediate, Quantum, Hybrid. See Wikipedia's category page on programming language classification.

Machine Code

Most computers work by executing stored programs in a fetch-execute cycle. Machine code generally features

• Registers to store values and intermediate results
• Very low-level machine instructions (add, sub, div, sqrt)
• Labels and conditional jumps to express control flow
• A lack of memory management support — programmers do that themselves

Machine code is usually written in hex. Example for the Intel 64 architecture:

89 F8 A9 01 00 00 00 75 06 6B C0
03 FF C0 C3 C1 E0 02 83 E8 03 C3

Assembly Language

An assembly language is basically just a simplistic encoding of machine code into something more readable. It does add labeled storage locations and jump targets and subroutine starting addresses, but not much more. Here's the function on the Intel 64 architecture using the GAS assembly language:

        .globl  f
        .text
f:
        mov     %edi, %eax      # Put first parameter into eax register
        test    $1, %eax        # Isloate least significant bit
        jnz     odd             # If it's not a zero, jump to odd
        imul    $3, %eax        # It's even, so multiply it by 3
        inc     %eax            # and add 4
        ret                     # and return it
even:
        shl    $2, %eax         # It's odd, so multiply by 4
        sub    $3, %eax         # and subtract 3
        ret                     # and return it

For the SPARC:

        .global f
f:
        andcc   %o0, 1, %g0
        bne     .L1
        sll     %o0, 2, %g2
        sll     %o0, 1, %g2
        add     %g2, %o0, %g2
        b       .L2
        add     %g2, 1, %o0
.L1:
        add     %g2, -3, %o0
.L2:
        retl
        nop

High-Level Languages

A high-level language gets away from all the constraints of a particular machine. HLLs have features such as:

• Names for almost everything: variables, types, subroutines, constants, modules
• Complex expressions (e.g. 2 * (y^5) >= 88 && sqrt(4.8) / 2 % 3 == 9)
• Control structures (conditionals, switches, loops)
• Composite types (arrays, structs)
• Type declarations
• Type checking
• Easy ways to manage global, local and heap storage
• Subroutines with their own private scope
• Abstract data types, modules, packages, classes
• Exceptions

The previous example looks like this in Fortran 77 (note how the code begins in column 7 or beyond):

       INTEGER FUNCTION F(N)
       INTEGER N
       IF (MOD(N, 2) .EQ. 0) THEN
           F = 3 * N + 1
       ELSE
           F = 4 * N - 3
       END IF
       RETURN
       END

and like this in Ada:

function F (N: Integer) return Integer is
begin
    if N mod 2 = 0 then
        return 3 * N + 1;
    else
        return 4 * N - 3;
    end if;
end F;

and like this in Fortran 90 (where the column requirements were finally removed):

integer function f (n)
    implicit none
    integer, intent(in) :: n
    if (mod(n, 2) == 0) then
        f = 3 * n + 1
    else
        f = 4 * n - 3
    end if
end function f

and like this in C and C++:

int f(const int n) {
    return (n % 2 == 0) ? 3 * n + 1 : 4 * n - 3;
}

and like this in Java and C#:

class ThingThatHoldsTheFunctionUsedInTheExampleOnThisPage {
    public static int f(int n) {
        return (n % 2 == 0) ? 3 * n + 1 : 4 * n - 3;
    }
}

and like this in Scala:

def f(n: Int) = if (n % 2 == 0) 3 * n + 1 else 4 * n - 3;

and like this in JavaScript:

function f(n) {
    return (n % 2 === 0) ? 3 * n + 1 : 4 * n - 3;
}

and like this in CoffeeScript:

f = (n) -> if n % 2 == 0 then 3 * n - 1 else 4 * n + 3

and like this in Smalltalk:

f
  ^self % 2 = 0 ifTrue:[3 * self + 1] ifFalse:[4 * self - 3]

and like this in ML:

fun f n = if n mod 2 = 0 then 3 * n + 1 else 4 * n - 3

and like this in Lisp and Scheme:

(defun f (n)
  (if (= (mod n 2) 0)
    (+ (* 3 n) 1)
    (- (* 4 n) 3)))

and like this in Clojure:

(defn f [n]
  (if (= (mod n 2) 0)
    (+ (* 3 n) 1)
    (- (* 4 n) 3)))

and like this in Prolog:

f(N, X) :- 0 is mod(N, 2), X is 3 * N + 1.
f(N, X) :- 1 is mod(N, 2), X is 4 * N - 3.

and like this in Perl:

sub f {
    my $n = shift;
    $n % 2 == 0 ? 3 * $n + 1 : 4 * $n - 3;
}

and like this in Python:

def f(n):
    return 3 * n + 1 if n % 2 == 0 else 4 * n - 3

and like this in Ruby:

def f(n)
  n % 2 == 0 ? 3 * n + 1 : 4 * n - 3;
end

and like this in Go:

func f(n int) int {
    if n % 2 == 0 {
        return 3 * n + 1
    } else {
        return 4 * n - 3
    }
}

and like this in Rust:

fn f(n: int) -> int {
    return if n % 2 == 0 {3 * n + 1} else {4 * n - 3}
}

and like this in Swift:

func f(n: Int) -> Int {
    return n % 2 == 0 ? 3 * n + 1 : 4 * n - 3
}

Exercise: Which of these languages required that variables or functions be declared with types and which did not?

Exercise: Implement this function in PHP, Objective C, Go, D, and Mercury.

System Languages

System programming languages differ from application programming languages in that they are more concerned with managing a computer system rather than solving general problems in health care, game playing, or finance. System languages deal with:

• Memory management
• Process management
• Data transfer
• Caches
• Device drivers
• Operating systems

Scripting Languages

Scripting languages are used for wiring together systems and applications at a very high level. They are almost always extremely expressive (they do a lot with very little code) and usually dynamic (the compiler does little, the run-time system does almost everything).

Esoteric Languages

An esoteric language is one not intended to be taken seriously. They can be jokes, near-minimalistic, or despotic (purposely obfuscated or non-deterministic).